MySQL Server has a server character set and a server collation. These can be set at server startup on the command line or in an option file and changed at runtime.

Initially, the server character set and collation depend on the options that you use when you start mysqld. You can use --character-set-server for the character set. Along with it, you can add --collation-server for the collation. If you don't specify a character set, that is the same as saying --character-set-server=latin1. If you specify only a character set (for example, latin1) but not a collation, that is the same as saying --character-set-server=latin1 --collation-server=latin1_swedish_ci because latin1_swedish_ci is the default collation for latin1. Therefore, the following three commands all have the same effect:

shell> mysqld
shell> mysqld --character-set-server=latin1
shell> mysqld --character-set-server=latin1 \
           --collation-server=latin1_swedish_ci

One way to change the settings is by recompiling. If you want to change the default server character set and collation when building from sources, use: --with-charset and --with-collation as arguments for configure. For example:

shell> ./configure --with-charset=latin1

Or:

shell> ./configure --with-charset=latin1 \
           --with-collation=latin1_german1_ci

Both mysqld and configure verify that the character set/collation combination is valid. If not, each program displays an error message and terminates.

The server character set and collation are used as default values if the database character set and collation are not specified in CREATE DATABASE statements. They have no other purpose.

The current server character set and collation can be determined from the values of the character_set_server and collation_server system variables. These variables can be changed at runtime.

Every database has a database character set and a database collation. The CREATE DATABASE and ALTER DATABASE statements have optional clauses for specifying the database character set and collation:

CREATE DATABASE db_name
    [[DEFAULT] CHARACTER SET charset_name]
    [[DEFAULT] COLLATE collation_name]

ALTER DATABASE db_name
    [[DEFAULT] CHARACTER SET charset_name]
    [[DEFAULT] COLLATE collation_name]

All database options are stored in a text file named db.opt that can be found in the database directory.

The CHARACTER SET and COLLATE clauses make it possible to create databases with different character sets and collations on the same MySQL server.

Example:

CREATE DATABASE db_name CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_swedish_ci;

MySQL chooses the database character set and database collation in the following manner:

The database character set and collation are used as default values if the table character set and collation are not specified in CREATE TABLE statements. They have no other purpose.

The character set and collation for the default database can be determined from the values of the character_set_database and collation_database system variables. The server sets these variables whenever the default database changes. If there is no default database, the variables have the same value as the corresponding server-level system variables, character_set_server and collation_server.

Every table has a table character set and a table collation. The CREATE TABLE and ALTER TABLE statements have optional clauses for specifying the table character set and collation:

CREATE TABLE tbl_name (column_list)
    [[DEFAULT] CHARACTER SET charset_name] [COLLATE collation_name]]

ALTER TABLE tbl_name
    [[DEFAULT] CHARACTER SET charset_name] [COLLATE collation_name]

Example:

CREATE TABLE t1 ( ... ) CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_danish_ci;

MySQL chooses the table character set and collation in the following manner:

The table character set and collation are used as default values if the column character set and collation are not specified in individual column definitions. The table character set and collation are MySQL extensions; there are no such things in standard SQL.

Every “character” column (that is, a column of type CHAR, VARCHAR, or TEXT) has a column character set and a column collation. Column definition syntax for CREATE TABLE and ALTER TABLE has optional clauses for specifying the column character set and collation:

col_name {CHAR | VARCHAR | TEXT} (col_length)
    [CHARACTER SET charset_name] [COLLATE collation_name]

Examples:

CREATE TABLE Table1
(
    column1 VARCHAR(5) CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_german1_ci
);

ALTER TABLE Table1 MODIFY
    column1 VARCHAR(5) CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_swedish_ci;

If you convert a column from one character set to another, ALTER TABLE attempts to map the data values, but if the character sets are incompatible, there may be data loss.

MySQL chooses the column character set and collation in the following manner:

The CHARACTER SET and COLLATE clauses are standard SQL.

Every character string literal has a character set and a collation.

A character string literal may have an optional character set introducer and COLLATE clause:

[_charset_name]'string' [COLLATE collation_name]

Examples:

SELECT 'string';
SELECT _latin1'string';
SELECT _latin1'string' COLLATE latin1_danish_ci;

For the simple statement SELECT 'string', the string has the character set and collation defined by the character_set_connection and collation_connection system variables.

The _charset_name expression is formally called an introducer. It tells the parser, “the string that is about to follow uses character set X.” Because this has confused people in the past, we emphasize that an introducer does not change the string to the introducer character set like CONVERT() would do. It does not change the string's value, although padding may occur. The introducer is just a signal. An introducer is also legal before standard hex literal and numeric hex literal notation (x'literal' and 0xnnnn).

Examples:

SELECT _latin1 x'AABBCC';
SELECT _latin1 0xAABBCC;

MySQL determines a literal's character set and collation in the following manner:

Examples:

Character set introducers and the COLLATE clause are implemented according to standard SQL specifications.

An introducer indicates the character set for the following string, but does not change now how the parser performs escape processing within the string. Escapes are always interpreted by the parser according to the character set given by character_set_connection.

The following examples show that escape processing occurs using character_set_connection even in the presence of an introducer. The examples use SET NAMES (which changes character_set_connection, as discussed in Section 9.1.4, “Connection Character Sets and Collations”), and display the resulting strings using the HEX() function so that the exact string contents can be seen.

Example 1:

mysql> SET NAMES latin1;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.01 sec)

mysql> SELECT HEX('à\n'), HEX(_sjis'à\n');
+------------+-----------------+
| HEX('à\n') | HEX(_sjis'à\n') |
+------------+-----------------+
| E00A       | E00A            | 
+------------+-----------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

Here, “à” (hex value E0) is followed by “\n”, the escape sequence for newline. The escape sequence is interpreted using the character_set_connection value of latin1 to produce a literal newline (hex value 0A). This happens even for the second string. That is, the introducer of _sjis does not affect the parser's escape processing.

Example 2:

mysql> SET NAMES sjis;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT HEX('à\n'), HEX(_latin1'à\n');
+------------+-------------------+
| HEX('à\n') | HEX(_latin1'à\n') |
+------------+-------------------+
| E05C6E     | E05C6E            | 
+------------+-------------------+
1 row in set (0.04 sec)

Here, character_set_connection is sjis, a character set in which the sequence of “à” followed by “\” (hex values 05 and 5C) is a valid multi-byte character. Hence, the first two bytes of the string are interpreted as a single sjis character, and the “\” is not intrepreted as an escape character. The following “n” (hex value 6E) is not interpreted as part of an escape sequence. This is true even for the second string; the introducer of _latin1 does not affect escape processing.

Before MySQL 4.1, NCHAR and CHAR were synonymous. Standard SQL defines NCHAR or NATIONAL CHAR as a way to indicate that a CHAR column should use some predefined character set. MySQL 4.1 and up uses utf8 as that predefined character set. For example, these data type declarations are equivalent:

CHAR(10) CHARACTER SET utf8
NATIONAL CHARACTER(10)
NCHAR(10)

As are these:

VARCHAR(10) CHARACTER SET utf8
NATIONAL VARCHAR(10)
NCHAR VARCHAR(10)
NATIONAL CHARACTER VARYING(10)
NATIONAL CHAR VARYING(10)

You can use N'literal' (or n'literal') to create a string in the national character set. These statements are equivalent:

SELECT N'some text';
SELECT n'some text';
SELECT _utf8'some text';

The following examples show how MySQL determines default character set and collation values.

Example 1: Table and Column Definition

CREATE TABLE t1
(
    c1 CHAR(10) CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_german1_ci
) DEFAULT CHARACTER SET latin2 COLLATE latin2_bin;

Here we have a column with a latin1 character set and a latin1_german1_ci collation. The definition is explicit, so that's straightforward. Notice that there is no problem with storing a latin1 column in a latin2 table.

Example 2: Table and Column Definition

CREATE TABLE t1
(
    c1 CHAR(10) CHARACTER SET latin1
) DEFAULT CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_danish_ci;

This time we have a column with a latin1 character set and a default collation. Although it might seem natural, the default collation is not taken from the table level. Instead, because the default collation for latin1 is always latin1_swedish_ci, column c1 has a collation of latin1_swedish_ci (not latin1_danish_ci).

Example 3: Table and Column Definition

CREATE TABLE t1
(
    c1 CHAR(10)
) DEFAULT CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_danish_ci;

We have a column with a default character set and a default collation. In this circumstance, MySQL checks the table level to determine the column character set and collation. Consequently, the character set for column c1 is latin1 and its collation is latin1_danish_ci.

Example 4: Database, Table, and Column Definition

CREATE DATABASE d1
    DEFAULT CHARACTER SET latin2 COLLATE latin2_czech_ci;
USE d1;
CREATE TABLE t1
(
    c1 CHAR(10)
);

We create a column without specifying its character set and collation. We're also not specifying a character set and a collation at the table level. In this circumstance, MySQL checks the database level to determine the table settings, which thereafter become the column settings.) Consequently, the character set for column c1 is latin2 and its collation is latin2_czech_ci.

For MaxDB compatibility these two statements are the same:

CREATE TABLE t1 (f1 CHAR(N) UNICODE);
CREATE TABLE t1 (f1 CHAR(N) CHARACTER SET ucs2);

With the COLLATE clause, you can override whatever the default collation is for a comparison. COLLATE may be used in various parts of SQL statements. Here are some examples:

The COLLATE clause has high precedence (higher than ||), so the following two expressions are equivalent:

x || y COLLATE z
x || (y COLLATE z)

The BINARY operator casts the string following it to a binary string. This is an easy way to force a comparison to be done byte by byte rather than character by character. BINARY also causes trailing spaces to be significant.

mysql> SELECT 'a' = 'A';
        -> 1
mysql> SELECT BINARY 'a' = 'A';
        -> 0
mysql> SELECT 'a' = 'a ';
        -> 1
mysql> SELECT BINARY 'a' = 'a ';
        -> 0

BINARY str is shorthand for CAST(str AS BINARY).

The BINARY attribute in character column definitions has a different effect. A character column defined with the BINARY attribute is assigned the binary collation of the column's character set. Every character set has a binary collation. For example, the binary collation for the latin1 character set is latin1_bin, so if the table default character set is latin1, these two column definitions are equivalent:

CHAR(10) BINARY
CHAR(10) CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_bin

The effect of BINARY as a column attribute differs from its effect prior to MySQL 4.1. Formerly, BINARY resulted in a column that was treated as a binary string. A binary string is a string of bytes that has no character set or collation, which differs from a non-binary character string that has a binary collation. For both types of strings, comparisons are based on the numeric values of the string unit, but for non-binary strings the unit is the character and some character sets allow multi-byte characters. Section 10.4.2, “The BINARY and VARBINARY Types”.

The use of CHARACTER SET binary in the definition of a CHAR, VARCHAR, or TEXT column causes the column to be treated as a binary data type. For example, the following pairs of definitions are equivalent:

CHAR(10) CHARACTER SET binary
BINARY(10)

VARCHAR(10) CHARACTER SET binary
VARBINARY(10)

TEXT CHARACTER SET binary
BLOB

In the great majority of statements, it is obvious what collation MySQL uses to resolve a comparison operation. For example, in the following cases, it should be clear that the collation is the collation of column x:

SELECT x FROM T ORDER BY x;
SELECT x FROM T WHERE x = x;
SELECT DISTINCT x FROM T;

However, when multiple operands are involved, there can be ambiguity. For example:

SELECT x FROM T WHERE x = 'Y';

Should this query use the collation of the column x, or of the string literal 'Y'?

Standard SQL resolves such questions using what used to be called “coercibility” rules. Basically, this means: Both x and 'Y' have collations, so which collation takes precedence? This can be difficult to resolve, but the following rules cover most situations:

The preceding coercibility values are current as of MySQL 4.1.11. See the note later in this section for additional version-related information.

Those rules resolve ambiguities in the following manner:

Although automatic conversion is not in the SQL standard, the SQL standard document does say that every character set is (in terms of supported characters) a “subset” of Unicode. Because it is a well-known principle that “what applies to a superset can apply to a subset,” we believe that a collation for Unicode can apply for comparisons with non-Unicode strings.

Examples:

The COERCIBILITY() function can be used to determine the coercibility of a string expression:

mysql> SELECT COERCIBILITY('A' COLLATE latin1_swedish_ci);
        -> 0
mysql> SELECT COERCIBILITY(VERSION());
        -> 3
mysql> SELECT COERCIBILITY('A');
        -> 4

See Section 11.10.3, “Information Functions”.

Before MySQL 4.1.11, there is no system constant or ignorable coercibility. Functions such as USER() have a coercibility of 2 rather than 3, and literals have a coercibility of 3 rather than 4.

Each character set has one or more collations, but each collation is associated with one and only one character set. Therefore, the following statement causes an error message because the latin2_bin collation is not legal with the latin1 character set:

mysql> SELECT _latin1 'x' COLLATE latin2_bin;
ERROR 1253 (42000): COLLATION 'latin2_bin' is not valid
for CHARACTER SET 'latin1'

In some cases, expressions that worked before MySQL 4.1 fail in early versions of MySQL 4.1 if you do not take character set and collation into account. For example, before 4.1, this statement works as is:

mysql> SELECT SUBSTRING_INDEX(USER(),'@',1);
+-------------------------------+
| SUBSTRING_INDEX(USER(),'@',1) |
+-------------------------------+
| root                          |
+-------------------------------+

The statement also works as is in MySQL 4.1 as of 4.1.8: In MySQL 4.1, usernames are stored using the utf8 character set (see Section 9.1.8, “UTF-8 for Metadata”). The literal string '@' has the server character set (latin1 by default). Although the character sets are different, MySQL can coerce the latin1 string to the character set (and collation) of USER() without data loss. It does so, performs the substring operation, and returns a result that has a character set of utf8.

However, in versions of MySQL 4.1 before 4.1.8, the statement fails:

mysql> SELECT SUBSTRING_INDEX(USER(),'@',1);
ERROR 1267 (HY000): Illegal mix of collations
(utf8_general_ci,IMPLICIT) and (latin1_swedish_ci,COERCIBLE)
for operation 'substr_index'

This happens because the automatic character set conversion of '@' does not occur and the string operands have different character sets (and thus different collations):

mysql> SELECT COLLATION(USER()), COLLATION('@');
+-------------------+-------------------+
| COLLATION(USER()) | COLLATION('@')    |
+-------------------+-------------------+
| utf8_general_ci   | latin1_swedish_ci |
+-------------------+-------------------+

One way to deal with this is to upgrade to MySQL 4.1.8 or later. If that is not possible, you can tell MySQL to interpret the literal string as utf8:

mysql> SELECT SUBSTRING_INDEX(USER(),_utf8'@',1);
+------------------------------------+
| SUBSTRING_INDEX(USER(),_utf8'@',1) |
+------------------------------------+
| root                               |
+------------------------------------+

Another way is to change the connection character set and collation to utf8. You can do that with SET NAMES 'utf8' or by setting the character_set_connection and collation_connection system variables directly.

Example 1: Sorting German Umlauts

Suppose that column X in table T has these latin1 column values:

Muffler
Müller
MX Systems
MySQL

Suppose also that the column values are retrieved using the following statement:

SELECT X FROM T ORDER BY X COLLATE collation_name;

The following table shows the resulting order of the values if we use ORDER BY with different collations:

The character that causes the different sort orders in this example is the U with two dots over it (ü), which the Germans call “U-umlaut.”

Example 2: Searching for German Umlauts

Suppose that you have three tables that differ only by the character set and collation used:

mysql> CREATE TABLE german1 (
    ->   c CHAR(10)
    -> ) CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_german1_ci;
mysql> CREATE TABLE german2 (
    ->   c CHAR(10)
    -> ) CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_german2_ci;
mysql> CREATE TABLE germanutf8 (
    ->   c CHAR(10)
    -> ) CHARACTER SET utf8 COLLATE utf8_unicode_ci;

Each table contains two records:

mysql> INSERT INTO german1 VALUES ('Bar'), ('Bär');
mysql> INSERT INTO german2 VALUES ('Bar'), ('Bär');
mysql> INSERT INTO germanutf8 VALUES ('Bar'), ('Bär');

Two of the above collations have an A = Ä equality, and one has no such equality (latin1_german2_ci). For that reason, you'll get these results in comparisons:

mysql> SELECT * FROM german1 WHERE c = 'Bär';
+------+
| c    |
+------+
| Bar  |
| Bär  |
+------+
mysql> SELECT * FROM german2 WHERE c = 'Bär';
+------+
| c    |
+------+
| Bär  |
+------+
mysql> SELECT * FROM germanutf8 WHERE c = 'Bär';
+------+
| c    |
+------+
| Bar  |
| Bär  |
+------+

This is not a bug but rather a consequence of the sorting that latin1_german1_ci or utf8_unicode_ci do (the sorting shown is done according to the German DIN 5007 standard)